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Climate
Yugoslavia has a varied climate. Adriatic-Mediterranean climate is distinguished by long and very warm summers and short, mild and rainy winters. The central hilly-mountainous regions to 600 and 800 m above sea level are distinguished by a temperate continental climate with moderately warm summers and moderately cold and snowy winters, and with marked transitional seasons (spring and autumn). Rainfall occurs in all the seasons, but its amount varies and is often insufficient, particularly in July and August. The areas at an altitude higher than 800 m have mountainous climate with short and fresh summers and long, cold winters with plenty of snow lasting for more than 150 days. The Panonian plain (Vojvodina) is distinguished by continental climate. It is somewhat milder than the one in eastern Europe and is marked by warm and rather dry summers, cold, severe winters and short transitional seasons (spring and autumn). Maximal temperatures in summer exceed 35 °C (to 38 and 39 °C), and absolute minimal ones decline to -25 °C (rarely to -30 °C). The highest amount of rainfall is in May in June, while July and August are often very dry. During spring (till May) low temperatures (even to -13 °C) might damage flowers and fruit set. Early autumn frost may also occur, though less frequently. Storm and hailstorm are regular phenomena from May until September, with highly irregular frequency.

Geography
Geographical position, relief and vegetation considerably affect the climate in Yugoslavia. The country has three temperature zones: warm, moderate and cold. The warm zone extends in the narrow belt along the Adriatic sea and along the river valleys in Montenegro gravitating towards the sea. The temperatures here rarely fall below 0 °C, and maximum summer temperatures reach 36 °C, exceptionally 40 °C. The moderately warm zone includes lowlands and smaller mountains at an altitude of 600-800 m. In the inland, mountain ranges belong to the cold temperature zone. Here the temperatures below 0 °C can last for more than six months, with cool summers, August being the warmest month. Winds are most frequent in north-eastern and northern parts, as well as in the Adriatic region where they can cause damage to fruit and other crops. Rainfall is mainly brought by western winds from the Atlantic ocean and the Mediterranean. The highest amount of rainfall is in the coastal zone (2,000-4,000 mm, with a record of 8,500 mm). Towards the inland and the Panonian plain in the north and north-east, the rainfall declines to 800 mm, even to 600 mm and less in some drought years. In mountainous regions, rainfall amounts to 800-1,200 mm.

Horticulture
Yugoslavia has 4,866,000 ha of arable land, with orchards accounting for 5.5%, vineyards 1.8% and vegetable crops 6.5%. The rest is under field crops and industrial plants (69.9%) and meadows (16.2%).
In the continental part of the country, all the species of temperate fruit crops, grapevine, vegetable crops, medicinal plants, flowers and ornamental plants are grown. In the Mediterranean region, apart from some species of temperate deciduous fruit crops, subtropical fruits (citrus, olives, pomegranate, carob, kiwifruit) are also grown. Yugoslavia is well-known for plum production, which ranks first both in tree number (53%) and in fruit production (420,000-600,000 t annually). Fruit tree number (including subtropical crops) amounts to approximately 110 million, and annual production to 900,000-1,000,000 t. Starting from 1990, a slight decline in tree number and fruit production has been recorded. The share of other fruit crops in Yugoslav fruit growing is as follows: apple 16.7%; pear 7.8%; quince 1.2%; sweet cherry 2.4%; sour cherry 10.5%; apricot 1.9%; peach 4.5% and walnut 2.1%. Yugoslavia also produced over 20,000 t of prunes. In addition to this, sour cherry production amounting to 90,000-100,000 t is also significant. Among small fruits, raspberry (50,000-60,000 t) and strawberry (20,000-50,000 t) are of greatest importance. Sour cherry, raspberry and strawberry fruits are mainly exported as frozen.
Plum is grown in all parts of the country, but major production centres are in western Serbia (Valjevo-Loznica) and central Serbia (Topola-Cacak). The production is based on sharka (plum pox virus) tolerant cultivars. Apple is grown throughout the country, but the plantations are in the vicinity of Cacak, Smederevo, Obrenovac, Belgrade and in Vojvodina. Pear is grown in home gardens, but there are also commercial plantings near Cacak, Belgrade, Smederevo and in Vojvodina (Bela Crkva). Apricot is mostly grown in the north of the country (Subotica), near Belgrade and Smederevo (on the right bank of the Danube) and in the surroundings of Cacak and Kraljevo, and less in the other parts. Peach is also grown throughout the country, but the main production centres are in the vicinity of Grocka (the right bank of the Danube), on the foothills of Fruška Gora Mountain, near Vršac (in Vojvodina), in Šumadija (Topola-Vinca) and in the vicinity of Cacak and Kraljevo. Walnut is grown in all parts of the country, especially in river valleys where this nut crop thrives best, with several plantations established in Vojvodina. Raspberry is mostly produced in western and south-western parts of Yugoslavia (Valjevo, Kosjeric, Arilje, Ivanjica) and less in south-east (near Leskovac). Strawberry is produced in the vicinity of Niš and Leskovac, Kraljevo and Cacak, Smederevo, Grocka and Belgrade and less near Valjevo. Sour cherry is mostly produced in south-eastern Serbia (Prokuplje, Niš, Leskovac), in eastern Serbia (Knjaževac), near Smederevo and in Vojvodina.
Grape production is of great importance. Over the last 20 years, the areas under grapevine have decreased due to low prices of grape and wine and old, non-profitable growing systems. The cultivars for wine production are most widely grown, but table cultivars are also important. The major production areas are: Aleksandrovac, Leskovac, Niš, Knjaževac, Negotin, Smederevo, Fruška Gora, Vršac and Subotica. Grape production varies from 400,000-600,000 t annually.
The production of nursery trees (1.7-2.7 million trees annually) and vine grafts (earlier over 20.000.000) is well developed.
Vegetable crop growing is well developed, and recently the usage of tunnels has been encouraged. The major crop is potato and it is grown in the central parts (Cacak, Guca and Ivanjica) and in Vojvodina. Other crops rank as follows: cabbage, Savoy cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, melon and watermelon, onion and garlic and pepper. The total annual production of these vegetable crops amounts to approximately 2.000.000 t. Other vegetable crops are not so widely grown (lettuce, cucumber, spinach, carrots, zucchini, radish, red radish, horseradish, parsley, parsnip, leek, beans, string beans, peas, celery and mushrooms). The vegetables are grown in home gardens and on larger areas for industrial processing and for the market. They are most widely grown in fertile, river valleys and near the large industrial centres. The largest vegetable production centres are Leskovac, Niš, Aleksinac, Kraljevo, Cacak, Ub, the vicinity of Belgrade and Horgoš, as well as some other places in Vojvodina.
The production of flowers and ornamental shrubs and trees is very popular in Yugoslavia, particularly near spas and larger commercial centres. The production of planting material for gardens, parks and tourist places is of great significance. This production is mainly privately owned, but almost all towns have their public services dealing with the production of flowers and planting material in greenhouses, plastic tunnels and in the open. Differing types of roses are particularly appreciated, thus the large production of nursery stock has been organized.
Of bulbous species, crocuses, snowdrops, hyacinths, lilies, narcissi and tulips are widely grown. Gladioli and dahlias are especially appreciated. Peony stands out since there exists an autochtonous species - Kosovo peony. Late species of primula, iris, carnation and especially chrysanthemum are often found in home gardens and parks. A range of annual flowers, which are indispensable in well-arranged gardens, are also grown. Various shrub species - box, Cotoneaster, Forsythia, Hedera, Hibiscus and Ligustrum - are grown alongside with flowers. Special attention has been paid to conifers and deciduous trees.
The technology of fruit, grapevine, vegetables and flower growing has progressed significantly. Due to improved technology and dense planting, very high yields have been achieved with apple (up to 80 t/ha). The introduction of plastic tunnels into vegetable crop growing greatly extended the season of vegetable crops. The most significant results have been achieved in breeding various horticultural crops. Over 1,100 new cultivars were developed in Yugoslavia by 1996 inclusive, of which 117 were various vegetable crops (mostly tomato, pepper and beans), 41 fruit cultivars (mostly plums) and 53 grapevine cultivars (out of which 18 cultivars were for wine production).

Distribution of Horticulture
In the continental part of the country, all the species of temperate fruit crops, grapevine, vegetable crops, medicinal plants, flowers and ornamental plants are grown. In the Mediterranean region, apart from some species of temperate deciduous fruit crops, subtropical fruits (citrus, olives, pomegranate, carob, kiwifruit) are also grown. Yugoslavia is well-known for plum production, which ranks first both in tree number (53%) and in fruit production (420,000-600,000 t annually). Fruit tree number (including subtropical crops) amounts to approximately 110 million, and annual production to 900,000-1,000,000 t. Starting from 1990, a slight decline in tree number and fruit production has been recorded. The share of other fruit crops in Yugoslav fruit growing is as follows: apple 16.7%; pear 7.8%; quince 1.2%; sweet cherry 2.4%; sour cherry 10.5%; apricot 1.9%; peach 4.5% and walnut 2.1%. Yugoslavia also produced over 20,000 t of prunes. In addition to this, sour cherry production amounting to 90,000-100,000 t is also significant. Among small fruits, raspberry (50,000-60,000 t) and strawberry (20,000-50,000 t) are of greatest importance. Sour cherry, raspberry and strawberry fruits are mainly exported as frozen.

Plum is grown in all parts of the country, but major production centres are in western Serbia (Valjevo-Loznica) and central Serbia (Topola-Cacak). The production is based on sharka (plum pox virus) tolerant cultivars. Apple is grown throughout the country, but the plantations are in the vicinity of Cacak, Smederevo, Obrenovac, Belgrade and in Vojvodina. Pear is grown in home gardens, but there are also commercial plantings near Cacak, Belgrade, Smederevo and in Vojvodina (Bela Crkva). Apricot is mostly grown in the north of the country (Subotica), near Belgrade and Smederevo (on the right bank of the Danube) and in the surroundings of Cacak and Kraljevo, and less in the other parts. Peach is also grown throughout the country, but the main production centres are in the vicinity of Grocka (the right bank of the Danube), on the foothills of Fruška Gora Mountain, near Vršac (in Vojvodina), in Šumadija (Topola-Vinca) and in the vicinity of Cacak and Kraljevo. Walnut is grown in all parts of the country, especially in river valleys where this nut crop thrives best, with several plantations established in Vojvodina. Raspberry is mostly produced in western and south-western parts of Yugoslavia (Valjevo, Kosjeric, Arilje, Ivanjica) and less in south-east (near Leskovac). Strawberry is produced in the vicinity of Niš and Leskovac, Kraljevo and Cacak, Smederevo, Grocka and Belgrade and less near Valjevo. Sour cherry is mostly produced in south-eastern Serbia (Prokuplje, Niš, Leskovac), in eastern Serbia (Knjaževac), near Smederevo and in Vojvodina.
Grape production is of great importance. Over the last 20 years, the areas under grapevine have decreased due to low prices of grape and wine and old, non-profitable growing systems. The cultivars for wine production are most widely grown, but table cultivars are also important. The major production areas are: Aleksandrovac, Leskovac, Niš, Knjaževac, Negotin, Smederevo, Fruška Gora, Vršac and Subotica. Grape production varies from 400,000-600,000 t annually.
The production of nursery trees (1.7-2.7 million trees annually) and vine grafts (earlier over 20.000.000) is well developed.
Vegetable crop growing is well developed, and recently the usage of tunnels has been encouraged. The major crop is potato and it is grown in the central parts (Cacak, Guca and Ivanjica) and in Vojvodina. Other crops rank as follows: cabbage, Savoy cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, melon and watermelon, onion and garlic and pepper. The total annual production of these vegetable crops amounts to approximately 2.000.000 t. Other vegetable crops are not so widely grown (lettuce, cucumber, spinach, carrots, zucchini, radish, red radish, horseradish, parsley, parsnip, leek, beans, string beans, peas, celery and mushrooms). The vegetables are grown in home gardens and on larger areas for industrial processing and for the market. They are most widely grown in fertile, river valleys and near the large industrial centres. The largest vegetable production centres are Leskovac, Niš, Aleksinac, Kraljevo, Cacak, Ub, the vicinity of Belgrade and Horgoš, as well as some other places in Vojvodina.
The production of flowers and ornamental shrubs and trees is very popular in Yugoslavia, particularly near spas and larger commercial centres. The production of planting material for gardens, parks and tourist places is of great significance. This production is mainly privately owned, but almost all towns have their public services dealing with the production of flowers and planting material in greenhouses, plastic tunnels and in the open. Differing types of roses are particularly appreciated, thus the large production of nursery stock has been organized.
Of bulbous species, crocuses, snowdrops, hyacinths, lilies, narcissi and tulips are widely grown. Gladioli and dahlias are especially appreciated. Peony stands out since there exists an autochtonous species - Kosovo peony. Late species of primula, iris, carnation and especially chrysanthemum are often found in home gardens and parks. A range of annual flowers, which are indispensable in well-arranged gardens, are also grown. Various shrub species - box, Cotoneaster, Forsythia, Hedera, Hibiscus and Ligustrum - are grown alongside with flowers. Special attention has been paid to conifers and deciduous trees.
The technology of fruit, grapevine, vegetables and flower growing has progressed significantly. Due to improved technology and dense planting, very high yields have been achieved with apple (up to 80 t/ha). The introduction of plastic tunnels into vegetable crop growing greatly extended the season of vegetable crops. The most significant results have been achieved in breeding various horticultural crops. Over 1,100 new cultivars were developed in Yugoslavia by 1996 inclusive, of which 117 were various vegetable crops (mostly tomato, pepper and beans), 41 fruit cultivars (mostly plums) and 53 grapevine cultivars (out of which 18 cultivars were for wine production).

Research Thrusts
Research is partially funded by the Ministry for Science and Technology in Republics, on the basis of granted research projects which may be of strategic (lasting 5 years), technological (3 years) and innovative (1 year) importance. A part of funds is provided by research Organisations from the cooperation with the industry or from own resources. The Federal Ministry for Development, Science and Environment funds the projects of Yugoslav importance, such as genetic resources, environmental protection and the similar.

Nature of Institutes
Research in the field of horticulture is carried out at independent institutes and at universities. Yugoslavia has 13 research centres, 10 in the Republic of Serbia and 3 in the Republic of Montenegro.

Staff training for the work in agriculture is conducted on three levels: 1) general or specialized secondary agricultural schools lasting 3-4 years; 2) advanced agricultural schools of differing profiles, lasting 2 years; and 3) faculties (agricultural or agronomical) at universities lasting 4 years. Staff for a number of programs (for fruit and grape growing, vegetable crop growing, cattle breeding, agricultural mechanization, technology and processing) or for a general program (Cacak) are trained at agricultural faculties.

Organisations / Institutes:
University of Belgrade
Agricultural Combination Belgrade, Institute of Scientific Research on Agro-economics (PKB INI AGROEKONOMIK)
University of Kragujevac
University of Novi Sad
Institute of Biotechnology, Podgorica
University of Priština
Agricultural Research Institute 'Serbia'
Centre of Subtropical Crops, Bar
Institute of Plant Protection and Environment, Belgrade
Centre for Temperate Fruit Crops and Medicinal, Aromatic and Wild Plants, Bjelo Polje

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